27Ptolemy later more accurately modeled the retrograde motion by positing a system of epicycles – crystaline whorls spindled upon the rims of these vessel-like crystaline whorls.

We hardly need to point out the deficiencies of the above model when taken literally. Like all models this one is an elaborate attempt to approximate our limited understanding to some underlying truth. Our current model of the universe (the “Big Bang”) is based on a much more precise set of observations with correspondingly rigorous mathematical equations. Yet, it too has been riddled with epicycle-like elements such as inflation, dark matter, and dark energy.