CHAPTER XX

PREPOSITIONS

     559.   Prepositions are comparatively few in number and, though they do not themselves modify other words, they are necessary to show how different ideas are related to each other.   They help to make phrases that modify and complement like adjectives and adverbs do.
     560.   The object of a preposition may be, —
1. A Noun:The farmers are at work in the field.
or some expression equivalent to a noun; as, —
2. A Pronoun:I went from you to her.
3. A Verbal Noun:Thank him for doing the errand.
4. A Phrase:The insurgents fired from behind the walls.
5. A Clause:I am surprised at What you say.
     ( a )   The object sometimes precedes the preposition, especially in poetry. Thus: —
The heavy night hung dark the hills and waters o’er.

Uses of Prepositional Phrases.

     561.   A prepositional phrase may be used like an adjective —
     (1)   To modify or complement a noun or a pronoun; as in —
There is no hope of rescue.     Which of you will go?
or (2)   As a subjective complement; as in —
Your friend is in good spirits.     They are of great service.
     ( a )   When used as an adjective, it may be called an adjective phrase.
     562.   A prepositional phrase may be used like an adverb to modify —
1. A Verb:Go in haste | to the town | for medicine.
2. A Verbal Noun:To waste in youth is to want in old age.
3. A Verbal Adjective:Bees coming to hives laden with pollen.
4. An Adjective:The narrative is full of interest.
5. An Adverb:She did well for a biginner.
     ( a ) When used as an adverb, it may be called an adverb phrase.
     563.   A prepositional phrase may be used like a noun, as subject, object, etc., — especially after from. Thus: —
They came from across the seas.
Out of sight is out of mind.

EXERCISE 322.

     564.   Phrasal prepositions.   Some little phrases are so much like single prepositions in their use, that, instead of separating them, we may call them phrasal prepositions. Thus: —
It crawledfrom
out of
from out 		a hole.     In
As to
As for  		color, this is perfect.
     The following are some of the phrases most commonly used as prepositions: —
     According to, as to, as for, along with, instead of, out of, in spite of, in front of, by means of, on board, etc.
     565.   Prepositions as Adverbs or Conjunctions.   Most of the prepositions were once adverbs, and are often used as such. Thus: —
It isn’t worth talking about.     How is it disposed of?
Sometimes they become conjunctions [ § 579]. Thus: —
Stay till I come.     We started before the moon rose.
     565a.   Prepositions in a Phrasal Verb.   The use of a preposition with or without its object suggests that in some respects we can consider some of them as “transitive adverbs.”  
He sometimes walks about for exercise.     He walks about the room for exercise.
In these examples the addition of the adverb makes the verb potentially take an object. These and the examples in the preceding section illustrate how the preposition serves to form a phrasal verb. The verb became transitive and formed in one case the gerund “talking about something” and in the second case a passive verb phrase corresponding to the active “disposed of it.”
     566.   Parsing Prepositions.   A preposition is parsed (1) by stating that it is a preposition, and (2) by showing how it is used.
     These forms may be followed: —
[ In his garden ] grew flowers ( of every hue ).
in is a preposition, used with its object garden to make a phrase that modifies grew.
of is a preposition, used with its object hue to make a phrase modifying flowers.

EXERCISE 323.

     567.   Inappropriate use of Prepositions.   Be careful to use the most appropriate preposition. Thus: —
Between has an object that refers to two things: Divide the money between the two claimants.
Among has an object that refers to more than two things: Divide the money among the several legatees. Into and to follow verbs denoting motion; in and at verbs of rest: Go into the house and remain in it.   He is at home.
The following two pieces of advice are now perceived as being pedantic.   These usages will distinguish one as a careful speaker, someone not given to colloquialisms.
     Say, “I met him in the street,” “in the bus,” “in the train,” “in an airplane,” rather than “on the street,” etc.
     Say, “different from,” not “different to,” nor “different than,”; as, “Mine is different from yours.”      Some phrasal verbs require upon whereas other are complete with on. Say, “I was prevailed upon to sing,” “The students depended on the bus.”
     568.   Do not use prepositions needlessly nor omit them when they are required. Thus: —
I do not wish for your services.   Omit for.
The book is no use to me.   Say “of no use.”
     Wish as the phrasal verb with for is not required as the desired intent is simply to reject an offer, not to deny a desire. The complement as an adjectival phrase denies that I have a purpose for the book, whereas a noun phrase complement would suggest that the book was itself some process without a purpose.

EXERCISE 324.

CHAPTER XXI

CONJUNCTIONS

     569.   Since we first defined conjunctions (§ 191), we have studied several other kinds of connective words: —
     (1) The conjunctive pronouns who, which, that, what, etc., which, while they connect, also do the work of nouns and pronouns;
     (2) The conjunctive adverbs when, where, while, etc., which, besides connecting, always modify; and —
     (3) The prepositions, which show the relation between words.
      We now come to genuine Conjunctions, the chief use of which is to connect the parts of compound and complex sentences.

KINDS.

     570.   Conjunctions are divided according to their use into two classes: (1)   co-ordinating conjunctions, that connect the parts of a sentence so that they remain alike in rank or construction; and (2)   subordinating conjunctions, that make one of the connected parts dependent upon or a part of the other.
     “Co-ordinate” means of equal rank; “subordinate,” of inferior rank.
     571.   I.   Co-ordinating conjunctions are used to connect (1) The members of a compound sentence. Thus: —
The floods came, and the winds blew, but it fell not.
We must overcome evil, or it will overcome us.
     (2) Words, phrases, and clauses having the same construction. Thus: —
Bright and and happy children were running or playing there.
True friends are the same in prosperity and in adversity.
I do not know when he came nor whither he went.
     ( a ) Co-ordinating conjunctions are sometimes used at the beginning of a separate sentence to connect it in meaning with what precedes.
     572.   We give the name co-ordinating conjunctions first to and, but, or, nor, which do little but connect; secondly, to certain words which, though they retain their adverbial meaning, serve principally to show the connection between the members of a compound sentence. Thus: —
I do not believe in the change; however, I shall not oppose it.
     ( a ) Therefore, hence, still, besides, consequently, yet, likewise, moreover, else, then, also, accordingly, nevertheless, notwithstanding, etc., are words of this kind. Try to form sentences beginning with them, and you will see that they refer to what has been said before in each case.
     573.   A Co-ordinating conjunction is one that joins sentences or parts of sentences having the same rank.
     574.   We can if we wish divide all co-ordinating conjunctions into four classes: —
Conjunctive, or such as merely join together, like and.
Disjunctive, or such as offer a choice between two, like or.
Adversative, or such as imply that one part is opposed to the other, like but.
Illative, such as assign a cause, a reason, a result, etc., like for.
     [For the first two classes the authors used the terms copulative and alternative, and for the last causal. My terms correspond better with those used in logic. Caution should be taken, however, that the first term not be confused with the name of the whole class.]
     575.   Correlatives.   Some conjunctions, called correlatives, are used in pairs, one before each of the connected parts to make their connection more evident. Thus: —
I have both seen and heard the orator.
They are to meet us either in Paris or in London.
Give me neither poverty nor riches.
Whether to go or to return is the question.
Not only did he participate, but he also scored the winning touchdown.
     NOTE.   The first member of each pair may be parsed as an auxiliary or assistant conjunction helping the other to do the connecting. This additional member serves much the same purpose as the opening parenthesis in mathematical logic by delineating the initial boundary of a conjunctive pair.

EXERCISE 325.

     576.   Punctuation.   RULE. — When the members of a compound sentence are long, or much like separate sentences, the semicolon or the colon must be used between them instead of the comma.   [See § 189.]
     577.   Subordinating Conjunctions. If we unite the sentences, —
Rain has fallen.     The grass is wet,
by the co-ordinating conjunction “and”; thus, —
Rain has fallen, and the grass is wet,
we make a compound sentence with co-ordinate members; that is, with members of equal rank. But if we unite them by the conjunction “because”; thus, —
The grass is wet, because rain has fallen,
we change their relation and rank, and make one of them an adverb clause that gives a reason for the other, by telling why the grass is wet.
     So too in the sentences, —
It will dry out after the sun has come up.
We must hurry, so that we may meet our friends.
We shall wait if they fail to have come.
the conjunctions after, so that, if, change what might be independent sentences into adverb clauses that modify verbs by showing when, why, on what condition, etc.
     578.   Conjunctions of this kind connect two sentences by changing one of them into a clause which becomes part of the other, and they are therefore called subordinating.
     579.   Most subordinating conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses, which may modify in a variety of ways. Thus, they may denote: —
1. Time: We waited after
before
since
till
until
err		you came.
2. Cause or Reason: I will go because
for
since
as
inasmuch as		you ask it.
3. Manner: Work as if
as though
like
how		you are paid.
4. Comparison: The nights are longer than the days [ are ].
Venus is more distant than the moon [ is ].
5.Condition,
Concession,
etc.:
I will go if
unless
provided		he needs me.
Though
Although		he is poor he is content.
6. Purpose or Result:
Take good carethat
lest		they escape.
Exercise daily, that
so that		you may grow strong.
     580.   The subordinating conjunction that (and sometimes whether) is often used in making a noun clause. Thus the sentences —
He was wrong.     We knew that fact,
when united by that become —
We knew that he was wrong.
     So —
Ask whether the flight has departed,
as also with other interrogative adverbs: —
Ask when the flight will depart.
     581.   A Subordinating conjunction is one that changes an assertion into a clause, and connects it to the rest of the sentence. In the case of whether and the other interrogative adverbs the change is from a question.
     582.   Phrasal conjunctions. Some little phrases are used to connect like single words. For example: —
Corn as well as wheat may be raised here profitably.
I shall go inasmuch as he has invited me.
     The most common phrasal conjunctions are as if, as though, as well as, forasmuch as, provided that, seeing that, so that, in order that, etc.
     583.   Parsing Conjunctions. In parsing a conjunction we are to tell (1) its kind, and (2) what it connects. The following forms may be used: —
1. He spoke and acted [ [ as if ] ( his ) life were in danger ].
and is a co-ordinating conjunction, and connects the two verbs spoke and acted.
as if is a subordinating phrasal conjunction, and connects the adverb clause to spoke and acted.
2. [ [ After ] we had departed ] we found { that ( the ) fuselage leaked }.
after is a subordinating conjunction, and connects the adverb clause to found, which it modifies.
that is a subordinating conjunction, and joins the noun clause to found, of which it is the object.
     584.   Adverb phrases or adverb clauses that precede the words which they modify are generally set off by commas. Thus: —
When the sun had set, we returned to our homes.
The sun having set, they resumed their journey.
Shortly after sunset, the storm abated.
     585.   Punctuation.   RULE. — Adverb modifiers must generally be set off by commas unless they are very short or immediately follow the word that they modify.

     586.
SUMMARY:     FORMS FOR PARSING
Kinds.           is a Co-ordinating
Subordinating
Correlative		 Conjunction;
Uses.
It connects the co-ordinate words            and           .
phrases            and           .
clauses            and           .
members            and           .
It connects the adverb (or noun) clause to           .
It helps            to connect            and           .

EXERCISE 326.

     587.   Non-standard Use of Conjunctions.   Be aware of these inappropriate uses: —
     1. Carelessness causes the use of or for nor as the correlative of neither.
“Neither you or I” should be “Neither you nor I.”
     2. It is informal to use like instead of as or as if.
He acted like (as if) he was crazy.     Sing like (as) I do.
     3. It is careless to use but for than after other since normally the latter is the only conjunction permissible after any comparative word.
I have no other friend but (than) you; or, I have no friend but you.
     4. Some consider it informal to use but what for that or but that.
I have no doubt but what (that) he did it.
     5. Avoid the use of the informal if when used in place of whether.
See if (whether) he can go.

EXERCISE 327.

CHAPTER XXII

INTERJECTIONS, Etc

     588.   We call interjections one of the parts of speech because they are spoken and written as words; but they cannot enter into the construction of sentences, being only “thrown in between” them.
     They are halfway between ordinary language and the language of coughing, laughing, crying, and so on, which they are made to imitate.
     589.   Among the commonly written interjections are included —
     I.   Words used instead of an assertion to express feeling of various kinds: —
(a) Surprise or wonder; as, oh, ah, lo, whew, wow, my.
(b) Pleasure, joy, exultation; as, oh, ah, aha, hey, hurrah, yum, hurray, yikes, yippie.
(c) Pain, sadness, sorrow; as, oh, ah, alas, alack, ouch.
(d) Contempt or disgust; as, pshaw, fie, pooh, ugh, bah, juck, tsk, duh.
(e) Dismay or frustration; as, oh oh, oops, damn, sh…t.
     II.   Words used instead of a question; as, eh?   huh?
     III.   Words used instead of a command: —
(a) To call attention; as, O, lo, ho, ahoy, psst, hey, hello.
(b) To silence; as, hist, hush, shhh.
(c) To direct, expel; as, whoa, gee, haw, scat.
     IV.   Words used to imitate sounds such as those made by animals, machines, and so on. As, —
bow-wow, ba-a-a, bang, ding-dong, rub-a-dub-dub, whiz, whir-r, prr, patter, hum, mmm.
     Notice the sound of such verbs and nouns as grunt, buzz, roar, crash, hiss, puff, pop.  Cases where the sound of the word suggests its meaning are known as onomatopoeia.

Other Exclamatory Words

     590.   Many ordinary words and phrases are often used independently as mere exclamations, often with their real meaning hardly being thought of. So with —
(1) Nouns and pronouns: fire, nonsense, mercy, shame, what.
(2) Verbs: help, behold, look, see, begone, hark, listen, look at, looky, please, shoot.
(3) Adjectives: hail, well, welcome, strange, good, bravo.
(4) Adverbs, prepositions, and phrases: out, indeed, how, why, back, forward; on, up; amen, O dear, dear me, farewell, adieu, good-bye, good day.
     591.   When such an expression, even though used alone, retains its original meaning, we may supply what is omited, and treat the word as part of a sentence. Thus: —
Silence!   (Keep silence!)     Good!   (That is good!)
     592.   Sometimes, as when greatly excited, we abandon sentences altogether, and utter only the most important words; as, —
A sail! a sail!     Now for the boats!     Down with it!
Steady!     Lower!     To your oars, men!
     593.   Punctuation.   RULE. — Every interjection but O must be followed by an exclamation point when used in a very exclamatory way.

EXERCISE 328.

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