CHAPTER X

THE SENTENCE: KINDS

     106.   When we talk to each other, or write notes to our friends, we first have thoughts in our own minds, and then we let others know what they are by the words that we use; so that what we say depends on what we think.
     106a.   The converse, however, is not in general true: there are many, many things that we can think of, that the language does not allow us to say. Usually what we say expresses only a part of what we think. What we are going to say is not always comprehended by the conscious part of the mind, for sometimes we do not know what we have said until after we ourselves have heard it come forth. It is also a fact that some people must talk to themselves apparently in order to give order to their own thoughts.

EXERCISE 95.

     107.   Each word differs from almost every other word in its meaning or in its use, and we select those best suited to express our thoughts.

     If we were to go into the forest together, we might say,
1.I would like to come here every day.
2.This trail leads up to the cliff.
3.Do the birds sing in the rain?
4.Are there any wild flowers there?
5.Listen to the rapids.
6.Come and sit under this tree.

     On a sail boat we would have very different thoughts, and we might say,
1.The water looks very green.
2.I like sailing a lot.
3.What makes the clouds seem so low?
4.Wouldn’t you like to see an iceberg?
5.Come out on the deck.
6.See that cruise ship in the distance.
     108.   In each of these examples the words are so arranged that they have a definite meaning, and taken together they form what is called a sentence. Let’s see what the purpose of each of these sentences is; what its use is.
     Read the first two sentences in each group. In these we say what we know or believe.
     Read sentences three and four. In these we do not say that anything does or is so and so — we only ask about it; and in sentences five and six we request or order something to be done.

EXERCISE 96.

     109.   Any other sentences we could make would do one of these three things: assert, ask, or order. Hence, we say that —
     Sentences are complete assertions, questions, or commands.
     109a.   We will later note that sentences do not exhaust the utterances of our language. Some expressions are either not sentences or not complete. We may call to someone by name to get their attention without uttering a sentence, i.e., a complete thought. We may appropriately respond to many questions with a simple yes, no, or maybe. Some people utter certain words spontaneously to vent feelings using exclamations of the language — without forming them into sentences in the above sense — yet usually more or less expressive of “thought.”

EXERCISE 97.

     110.   When we speak and when we write, we put our words together into sentences of one kind or another. If we use only single words out of context, such as —
leads, like, are, birds, rapids, trail,
we do not really say anything; and if anybody speaks them, we can only wonder, “Who leads?” “Who likes?” “What are?” “What about birds, rapids, trail, etc.?”
     110a.   A little thought will convince the reader that we cannot claim that the utterance of one particular word in isolation from other words is “not saying anything.” It is usually the context of the utterance that makes it clear what the speaker intends. The examples in § 110 refer only to the random stringing of words together in such a way as to make it difficult, if not impossible, to gather any coherent meaning from them. As mentioned above in § 109a, it is certainly possible to address someone or respond to many kinds of questions with the utterance of just a single word.
     111.   The same is true of every group of words that is not a sentence when out of context, even though the words may be arranged so as to have some meaning. For example: —
the clouds.like sailing very much.
under the tree.looks green.
school of fish.leads to the lake.
through the canyon.to the rapids.
green with leaves.has brought.
     If we read these expressions backwards, they would have no meaning at all; as they are, they might form parts of sentences. But when out of context they are not sentences, and they do not give any information, for they do not form statements, questions, or commands.
     111a.   Nevertheless, it is always possible to devise a context for sentence fragments; someone may well give us information in the form given in § 111 if we ask felicitously such questions as: —
“What are those white things in the sky?”“What did you say you do?”
“Where shall we sit?”“What color would you say?”
“What do you call a collection of those animals?”“What does this trail do?”
“Where do these tracks lead?”“Where are you going in that canoe?”
“How do those trees look in spring?”“Would you say, ‘is brought’ or ‘has brought?’”

EXERCISE 98.

     112.   We have seen that every sentence either asserts or asks or orders. Hence, we say that —
     There are three kinds of sentences. We call them declarative, interrogative, and imperative.
     113.   A Declarative Sentence states a fact or an opinion.1
As: You speak correctly. You will learn to speak correctly.
     114.   An Interrogative Sentence asks a question.2
As: Do you speak correctly? Will you learn to speak correctly?
     115.   An Imperative Sentence gives a command, makes a request, or expresses a wish.2
As: Speak correctly. Please teach me to speak correctly.
     115a.   It is neverthless possible to allow certain sentences having the approximate outward form of the declarative sentence to serve as an interrogative or imperative sentence. It is easy to give a declarative sentence the force of an interrogative sentence by applying the typical intonational contour of an interrogative sentence to it.
As: You’re going to the woods today? The wildfire has shut down the freeway?
Similarly, we might supply the imperative sentence with the second person “you” subject as a vocative of address and thereby conform it approximately to the outward shape of a declarative sentence (except for the comma and its intonation):
As: You, sit down immediately!
Consider, further three ways to request certain behavior to avoid the imperative sentence, “Please, shut the window”:
1) DECLARATIVE:It is terribly cold here.
2) YN-INTERROGATIVE:Would you please shut the window?
3) Wh-INTERROGATIVE:How cold must it be here (before you shut the window)?

EXERCISE 99.

     116.   Exclamations. Sentences of any of these classes may also be exclamatory; that is, they may also express excitement, surprise, or impatience. For example: —
DECLARATIVE:’Tis false! There he goes!
INTERROGATIVE:Who would be afraid!
IMPERATIVE:Stop it! Keep up with us!

EXERCISE 100.

     117.   Exclamations like —
How many colors there are in the sunset!
What a long trip it is to the moon!
seem to form a new class. But they are actually better thought of as shortened forms of command sentences, — See how many colors there are in the sunset! Just think what a long trip it is to the moon!
     Exclamations of this kind always begin with how or what.
     118.   Punctuation. The following rules show us how to begin and end our written sentences: —
     119.   Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.
     120.   A declarative or an imperative sentence must end with a period [.].
     121.   An interrogative sentence must end with a question mark [?].
     122.   But a sentence of any sort that is also exclamatory, should end with an exclamation point [!].

EXERCISE 101.

EXERCISE 102.

1The use of suppositions, as, “If he come,” is confined to clauses.
2Without being a statement.

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